Die dagen manuel belgrano biography

Argentine military leader, politician, and newspaperwoman (1770–1820)

In this Spanish name, the final or paternal surname is Belgrano and integrity second or maternal family name remains González.

Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano (3 June 1770 – 20 June 1820), usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano (Spanish pronunciation:[maˈnwelβelˈɣɾano]), was an Argentine public servant, economist, lawyer, politician, journalist, and military governor. He took part in the Argentinian Wars of Independence and designed what became the flag of Argentina. Argentines regard him as one of blue blood the gentry main Founding Fathers of the land.

Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires, the fourth child of Italian executive Domingo Belgrano y Peri and honor María Josefa González Casero. He came into contact with the ideas learn the Age of Enlightenment while drum university in Spain around the again and again of the 1789 French Revolution. Assimilate 1794 he returned to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, where he became a notable affiliate of the criollo population of Buenos Aires; he tried to promote a variety of of the new political and common ideals, but found severe resistance superior local peninsulares. This rejection led him to work towards a greater independency for his country from the Romance colonial regime. At first he atrociously promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to become a regent ruler call upon the Viceroyalty during the period while in the manner tha the French imprisoned the Spanish Short Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular Clash (1807–1814). Belgrano favoured the May Upheaval, which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros from power on 25 May 1810. He was elected laugh a voting member of the Primera Junta that took power after character ouster.

As a delegate for justness Junta, he led the ill-fated Paraguay campaign of 1810-1811. Belgrano's troops were beaten by Bernardo de Velasco shakeup the battles of Paraguarí and Tacuarí. Though his army was defeated, excellence military campaign initiated the chain set in motion events that led to the freedom of Paraguay in May 1811. Be active retreated to the vicinity of Rosario, to fortify it against a feasible royalist attack from the Eastern Guests of the Uruguay River. While nigh, he developed the design of excellence flag of Argentina. The First Triple did not approve the flag, on the contrary because of slow communications, Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later, while reinforcing the Army stare the North at Jujuy. There, significant he was at a strategic liability against the royalist armies coming come across Upper Peru, Belgrano ordered the Jujuy Exodus, which evacuated the entire culture of Jujuy Province to San Miguel de Tucumán. His counter-offensive at influence Battle of Tucumán resulted in capital key strategic victory, and it was soon followed by a complete overcoming over the royalist army of Pío Tristán at the Battle of Salta. However, his deeper incursions into Bewitched Peru ended with the defeats in this area Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, leading the Superfluous Triumvirate to order his replacement tempt Commander of the Army of depiction North by the newly arrived José de San Martín. By then, magnanimity Asamblea del Año XIII had sanctioned the use of Belgrano's flag reorganization the national war flag.

Belgrano as a result went on a diplomatic mission benefits Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia blame on seek support for the revolutionary decide. He returned in time to take hold of part in the Congress of Tucumán, which declared Argentine independence (1816). Powder promoted the Inca plan to give birth to a constitutional monarchy with an Inka descendant as head of state. That proposal had the support of San Martín, Martín Miguel de Güemes, bracket many provincial delegates, but was powerfully rejected by the delegates from Buenos Aires. The Congress of Tucumán authorised the use of his flag by the same token the national flag. After this, Belgrano again took command of the Crowd of the North, but his give was limited to protecting San Miguel de Tucumán from royalist advances determine San Martín prepared the Army model the Andes for an alternative forced entry across the Andes. When José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López seemed selfassured to invade Buenos Aires, he reticent his army southwards, but his detachment mutinied in January 1820. Belgrano in a good way of dropsy on 20 June 1820. His last words reportedly were: "¡Ay, Patria mía!" (Oh, my homeland!).

Biography

Ancestry

Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on 3 June 1770, at authority father's house. It was located realistically the Santo Domingo convent, at Santo Domingo street, between the streets Martín de Tours and Santísima Trinidad (the modern names of those streets beyond "Belgrano", "Defensa", and "Bolívar" respectively).^[1] Allowing the city was still rather run down, the Belgranos lived in one bad deal its wealthiest neighborhoods. Manuel Belgrano was baptized at the Buenos Aires Oppidan Cathedral the following day.^[2] As type was born in the Americas recognized was considered a criollo, a collective class below the Peninsulars.

His pa, Domingo (whose original Italian name was Domenico Belgrano Peri) came from honesty town of Imperia, Liguria, Italy.^[3] Domingo's maternal last name was Peri, which he translated to the Spanish variation Pérez; his paternal last name was Belgrano – literally "Fairwheat", a reputation that denoted good cereal production. Yes changed his name "Domenico" to rectitude Spanish "Domingo" as well. He was an Italian merchant authorized by blue blood the gentry King of Spain to move censure the Americas, and had contacts lead to Spain, Rio de Janeiro, and Kingdom. He promoted the establishment of probity Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, which his son Manuel would lead marvellous few years later.^[4]

Manuel Belgrano's mother was María Josefa González Islas y Casero, born in Santiago del Estero, Argentina. The family was the second upper-class in Buenos Aires, after the Escaladas.^[1]

Domingo Belgrano Pérez managed a family vocation, and arranged for his four sprouts to marry merchants who would understand his trusted agents in the Banda Oriental, Misiones Province, and Spain. Influence eight living male sons followed disparate paths: Domingo José Estanislao became principle at the local cathedral, while Carlos José and José Gregorio joined picture army. Manuel Belgrano was meant thither follow his father's work, but like that which he developed other interests, it was his brother Francisco José María base Indias who continued the family business.^[5]

European studies

Belgrano completed his first studies dig the San Carlos school, where stylishness learned Latin, philosophy, logic, physics, thinking, and literature; he graduated in 1786.^[6] Domingo had sufficient success as dealer to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Accumulation. He expected them to study activity, but Manuel decided to study concept. Belgrano was so successful and done such prestige that Pope Pius VI allowed him to study forbidden scholarship, even books deemed as heretical, disallowment only the astrological and obscene books.^[7] In this way he came be accepted contact with authors like Montesquieu, Writer, and Filangieri, who were forbidden listed Spain.^[8]

Belgrano studied near the intellectual powerful of Spain, and by that regarding there were heated discussions about interpretation ongoing French Revolution. The principles avail yourself of equality and freedom, the universal diameter of the Declaration of the Forthright of Man and of the Dweller, and criticism of the divine exonerate of kings were constant topics recall debate. Among the supporters of these ideas it was thought that Espana should be remade under similar average, and critics of such thought were rejected as tyrants or proponents encourage outdated ideas.^[9]

However, the Spanish Enlightenment was slightly different from the French tune as it still respected religion playing field the monarchy. Thus, despite the additional influences, Belgrano remained a strong Wide and monarchist.^[10]

Belgrano also studied living languages, political economy, and public rights. Rendering authors that most influenced him were Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Adam Smith, and François Quesnay.^[9] Belgrano translated Quesnay's book Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole (General Maxims of the Cautious Government in an Agricultural Kingdom) criticize Spanish. His main interest in representation works of such authors were burden that referred to the public exposition and popular prosperity.^[9]

Like many South Indweller students, he became interested in physiocracy, which stated that new wealth came from nature, that agriculture was apartment house economic activity that generated more resources than one needed, and that significance state should not interfere at shy away with it. By that time, Southmost America had plenty of natural crimp and a very strict state interventionism in the economy. Belgrano developed ethics idea that the principles of physiocracy and those stated by Adam Adventurer could be applied together in depiction viceroyalty of the Río de arctic Plata. In the development of that approach he was influenced by Fernando Galliani, who promoted the study time off particular cases over theoric generalisations, refuse Antonio Genovesi, who thought that blue blood the gentry absolute freedom promoted by physiocrats obligation be tempered by a moderate interposition by the state, such as high-mindedness provision of free education for some.^[11]

During his time in Europe, Belgrano became president of an Academy within description University of Salamanca devoted to Italian legislation, forensic practice and political economy.^[7] In 1794, he translated the Maximas del Gobierno agricultor, which had comprehensive readership in Argentina before the circle in 1810.^[12]

This publication, along with Belgrano's other works, showed his preference dole out a combination of the ideas flash the physiocrats and the neomercantilist gain knowledge of by Antonio Genovesi. For him, that was the right economic model think it over could support Argentina's independence.^[12]

Work in distinction consulate

He was driven by his surface of imperial partnership and drafted well-organized well-known representacion to the Crown be expeditious for 1793.^[13] A short time before authority return to Buenos Aires on 3 June 1794, Belgrano was elected near Don Diego de Gardoqui as "perpetual secretary" of the Commerce Consulate spectacle Buenos Aires, a new local college which dealt with commercial and trade money-making issues in the name of description crown. This date would be closest known in Argentina as Economist Day.^[14] He would remain in this control until 1810, and would deal check on commercial disputes and promote agriculture, manufacture, and commerce. Not having enough permission to make big changes in blue blood the gentry economic system, he made big efforts to improve education. Influenced by Campomanes, he believed that the true process of countries was human ingenuity, settle down that the best way to forward industrialisation was through education.^[15]

Belgrano maintained everyday discussions with the committee members attain the consulate, who were all merchants with strong interests involved in leadership monopolic commerce with Cadiz.^[16] He indebted many proposals, influenced by free traffic ideas.^[17] By this time, Belgrano thoughtfulness that "The merchant must have liberty to buy where he can fix best accommodated, and it's natural wander he does where he is off with the best price to properly able to earn the best profit".^[15] Those proposals were rejected by integrity committee members; his only supporters were Juan José Castelli, Juan Larrea, instruct Domingo Matheu. However, Belgrano had thickskinned successes, such as creating the Yachting School, the Commerce School, and blue blood the gentry Geometry and Drawing Academy. He coined the Commerce School to influence innovative merchants to work towards the superb interests of the nation,^[18] and rank nautical and drawing ones to horses the youth with prestigious and money-spinning careers.^[19] The schools were situated consequent to the Consulate so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development. Grandeur schools were in place for years before they were closed next to a ruling of Manuel Godoy, depart from the Spanish monarchy, who considered them an unnecessary luxury for a district. It was felt that Buenos Aires might not be able to hang on them.^[20]

Belgrano tried to promote the change of agriculture via the production assiduousness linen and hemp, following experiences friendliness his friend Martín de Altolaguirre. Earth proposed to keep reserves of grain to help have control over warmth price.^[21] He also tried to trade name leather recognised as a product do away with the country, in order to advertisement its commercial potential.^[22] None of these proposals were accepted. He designed skilful system to give prizes to achievements that would boost the local conservation, diversify the agriculture, or deforest description pampas.^[23] The system did not awl as expected, and as nobody fall down the requirements no such prize was ever given.^[24]

He helped to create grandeur first newspaper of the city, decency Telégrafo Mercantil, directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa.^[25] He worked with Manuel José de Lavardén, and edited close to two hundred issues. The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty, who did not like the criticisms made in it or the coddle and parodies. He also worked unexpected defeat the Semanario de Agricultura, Comercio fix Industria, directed by Hipólito Vieytes. Recognized used this newspaper to explain coronate economic ideas: manufacturing and exporting hone goods, importing raw materials to assemble, avoiding importing luxury goods or succeed materials that could be produced alliance extracted locally, importing only vital inventions, and owning a merchant navy. Nobleness newspaper specialised in the "Philosophy epitome History, Geography and Statistics". Many insurrectionary principles were presented as essays.^[26]

Belgrano difficult to understand symptoms of syphilis, which he abstruse caught during his time in Europe.^[27] This sickness forced him to take hold of long leaves from his work accomplish the consulate, and to suggest consummate cousin Juan José Castelli, who esoteric similar ideas, as a possible substitute during his leaves.^[28] Rejection by birth committee members delayed the approval cancel out Castelli until 1796.

British invasions

Main article: British invasions of the River Plate

Belgrano was appointed as captain of birth urban militias in 1797 by nymphalid Pedro Melo de Portugal, who was instructed by Spain to prepare defences against a possible British or European attack.^[29] Belgrano by then worked surprise the consulate, and was no somebody interested in pursuing a military career.^[30] Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte requested avoid he create a militia to spread a possible British attack, but crystalclear did not take interest in give it some thought. His first participation in a expeditionary conflict took place when the Island, under William Carr Beresford, arrived let fall 1,600 men and captured Buenos Aires, as part of the first Country invasion of the River Plate. Belgrano moved to the fortress as before long as he heard the warning, distinguished gathered as many men as credible to join him in the bloodshed. However, as most of them wanted any formal training, his men marched in disorder and Belgrano ordered them to disband after a single Brits cannon shot scattered his panicked men.^[31] Belgrano would write later in surmount autobiography that he regretted not acceptance by then even the most somber knowledge of militia work.^[32]

After the Island captured the city, all Spanish polity were requested to pledge allegiance stalk the British crown. Belgrano thought ramble the members of the consulate be obliged leave the city and join ethics viceroy, but the others did very different from agree. They acceded to the Country request; Belgrano refused to do so.^[33] He said that he wanted "either our old master, or no owner at all".^[34] To avoid being unnatural to pledge allegiance, he escaped escape Buenos Aires and sought asylum attractive the chapel of Mercedes, in goodness Banda Oriental.^[33]

The British Army was cowed by a force under the address of Santiago de Liniers, and Romance authority was restored.^[35] It was appointed that the British would return, playing field the whole city started to provide for for that possibility. Belgrano returned be Buenos Aires after the reconquest, added put himself under the command inducing Liniers. He was appointed sergeant concede the Patricians Regiment, under the direct of Cornelio Saavedra, and started in front of study military strategy.^[36] After some conflicts with other officials, he resigned makeover sergeant and served again under rendering command of Liniers. A new Country attack took place in July 1807. During the battle he served kind field assistant to a division obligatory by Balbiani.^[37]

Belgrano resumed his work bill the consulate and discontinued his martial studies. Due to his knowledge use up French he had a brief ask with the British officer Robert Craufurd, who proposed British support for place independentist movement. Belgrano turned down primacy offer, suspecting that Britain might remove their support if their attentions were distracted by events which could take place in Europe, and in such suitcase the revolutionaries would be helpless desecrate a Spanish counterattack.^[38]

Carlotism

Main article: Carlotism

Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of primacy Carlotist political movement in the Metropolis de la Plata, a response be acquainted with recent developments in Europe, where Espana was at war with France. Past as a consequence o the abdications of Bayonne, the Romance king Ferdinand VII was deposed captain imprisoned and the Frenchman Joseph Bonaparte was appointed King of Spain bid the French victors. This led get into a partial power vacuum in character viceroyalty, as the legitimacy of decency new king was rejected by entitle parties. The purpose of the Carlotist movement was to replace the force of the deposed king with ensure of Carlota Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand, who was then living in City de Janeiro. The project was corroborated as a means to achieve added autonomy, and perhaps independence, for Country colonies in the New World.^[39] Belgrano kept a fluent mail communication exhausted Carlota, and convinced many independentists prompt join him in the project, specified as Castelli, Vieytes, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Juan José Paso.^[40]

The project, nevertheless, found strong resistance. As Carlota was married to John VI, a consort of Portugal, many people though lose one\'s train of thought Carlotism was a trick to keep secret Portuguese expansionism.^[39] Carlota herself had discrete political ideas than those of jewels supporters: Belgrano and the others merged the ideas of enlightenment, but Carlota aspired to keep the full motivation of an absolutist monarchy.^[41] By 1810 the project was forgotten.

A creative viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, disembarked from Europe to replace Liniers. Belgrano had failed to convince Liniers run through the benefits of the Carlotist way, so he aimed instead to authority him of refusing to give get in the way the viceroyalty, as Liniers had bent confirmed as viceroy by a Nation king. Cisneros, appointed by the Intrigue of Seville, lacked such legitimacy.^[42] Liniers refused this proposal as well, queue handed command to Cisneros without opposition. Belgrano later convinced the new governor to allow him to edit a-okay new newspaper, the "Correo de Comercio". This allowed him to gather get a message to other revolutionary leaders with the defence of discussing the development of blue blood the gentry newspaper.^[43] He also supported Cisneros in the way that he allowed foreign trade at honesty port (previously only Spanish ships were allowed), but this ruling was stoutly rejected by Spanish merchants. The solicitor Mariano Moreno wrote The Representation ticking off the Hacendados, an economic essay meander convinced Cisneros to maintain the unconfined foreign trade. Some historians, such introduction Miguel Ángel Scenna, suggest that interpretation essay was actually Belgrano's work, unseen a work by Moreno from organized draft written by Belgrano.^[44] Belgrano possibly will not have been able to now such a work himself, because purify held a political office and for his past opposition to Cisneros might have risked its rejection.^[45]

Belgrano resigned strange his work in the Consulate gravel April 1810 and moved to illustriousness countryside. A short time later stylishness received a letter from his south african private limited company requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements.^[46]

May Revolution

Main article: May Revolution

The Peninsular Contention was not developing favourably for Espana, and by May 1810 a corporation arrived with the news of excellence defeat of Seville and the disbanding of the Junta of Seville.^[47][48] Impoverished either a recognised Spanish king administrator the Junta that had appointed Cisneros, many people thought that the governor no longer had any authority. Cisneros tried to conceal the news tough gathering all the newspapers brought descendant the ship, but Belgrano and Castelli managed to get one.^[47] Cisneros abuse explained the European developments to illustriousness public. Belgrano and the members show the Carlotist party, despite having accepted up their original idea, plotted cling on to remove the viceroy and replace him with a junta. Under the notification of Cornelio Saavedra, they waited on the road to the news of the defeat fake Spain to take action.^[49]

Belgrano and Saavedra, representing the military and the literati, got an interview with Cisneros elect request an open cabildo, but lacking in getting an answer.^[50] Cisneros called illustriousness military leaders and requested their crutch, but they refused, under the goal that his viceroyalty lacked legitimacy.^[48] Castelli and other patriots insisted in their request, and Cisneros finally accepted. Unadulterated massive demonstration the following day dependable that Cisneros would keep his brief conversation. The open cabildo was held deepen 22 May, with all political leading present, and armed men filling representation Plaza and ready to invade decency cabildo in case the peninsulars attempted a disruption, which would be special to by a signal from Belgrano.^[51] Yes supported the stance of his relation Castelli, who made a speech explaining the concept of the retroversion fall foul of the sovereignty of the people, keep from that Spanish America was subject effect the King of Spain but band to Spain itself. At the interval of voting, Castelli's proposal was double with the one of Cornelio Saavedra, with Belgrano among its supporters.^[52] That joint proposal for the removal spectacle Cisneros and the creation of marvellous government junta prevailed over the rest 2. However, the cabildo attempted to hang on to Cisneros in power in spite line of attack this result, by creating a coterie with Cisneros as its president. That was rejected by the revolutionary leadership and the population. A great arraign of turmoil ended when the was disbanded on 25 May beam replaced by the Primera Junta. Belgrano was included in this junta, middle many other local politicians.^[52]

In his life Belgrano declared that he did call for have any previous knowledge of life included in the junta, and ensure his appointment took him by surprise.^[51] Nevertheless, he accepted the role. Of course was part of the political tag of Mariano Moreno; they were gravid to use the government to found big changes in the social join. One of his first rulings was the making of a Maths Establishment, located in the building of representation consulate and with the purpose think likely instructing the military.^[53][54] Belgrano was determined its protector. He supported the debarment of Cisneros and the members make public the Real Audience, and the carrying out of Liniers and other counter-revolutionaries foiled in Córdoba. Some historians suggest drift he would have promoted the cult of the Operations plan, a hidden document written by Moreno that lower-level harsh ways for the junta kind-hearted achieve its goals, while others hold the whole document a literary fraudulence done by royalists to discredit blue blood the gentry junta. A few others suspect renounce some paragraphs or the whole statement may have been the result get a hold collaborative writing between Moreno, Belgrano, obscure Hipólito Vieytes.^[55]

Expedition to Paraguay

Main article: Paraguay campaign

Three months after the creation appeal to the Primera Junta, Manuel Belgrano was appointed Chief Commander of an crowd sent to gather support at Corrientes, Santa Fe, Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental. A few days later her highness goal was made more specific: illegal must aim for Paraguay. The Clique had been informed that the jingoistic party was strong, and a petite army would suffice to take control.^[56] Trusting this information, Belgrano went make use of Paraguay with two possible goals: train acknowledgment for the Junta in Paraguay or promote a new government ditch would stay on friendly terms laughableness Buenos Aires. Belgrano was unaware guarantee on 24 July a general troop in Paraguay discussed the Junta for Buenos Aires, and decided to put down it and pledge allegiance to honesty Regency Council of Spain.^[56][57]

Belgrano headed polar with nearly two hundred men, in a family way to gather more people by blue blood the gentry end of the Paraná River. Lower ranks from the Blandengues regiments of San Nicolás and Santa Fe joined them en route, and later the Junto sent reinforcements of another two mob soldiers. The army was welcomed jam most of the population along depiction way, receiving donations and new recruits. Ultimately the army was composed exhaustive nearly 950 men, consisting of foot and cavalry divided in four divisions with one piece of artillery each.^[58][59]

By the end of October the host stopped at Curuzú Cuatiá, where Belgrano solved an old border conflict betwixt Corrientes and Yapeyu. He set which territories would belong to Curuzu Cuatiá and Mandisoví, and organised their municipal layout around the chapel and institute. By November the army arrived scorn the coast of Paraná near Apipé island, and there Belgrano took foundation to benefit the natives that were living in missions. With his jurisdiction as speaker of the Junta forbidden gave them full civil and factious rights, granted lands, authorised commerce adequate the United Provinces, and lifted their restriction on taking public or devout office.^[60] However, the Junta requested closest that he should seek authorization glossy magazine such changes in the future.^[61]

From stroll point the army moved to Candelaria, which was used as a fortification for the attack into Paraguay. Honesty terrain gave a clear advantage uncovered the Paraguayan governor Velazco against Belgrano: the Paraná River, nearly 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) wide, was an effective aberrant barrier, and once it was decussate the patriotic army would have elect move a long distance across ingenious land without supplies. Swamps, hills, rivers, and lakes would force the herd to march slowly, making a feasible retreat very difficult. The Parana was crossed with several boats on 19 December, and a task force firm 54 Paraguayan soldiers was forced come upon flee during the Battle of Campichuelo. Belgrano saw Velazco's army from righteousness Mbaé hill, and despite being terribly outnumbered, he ordered an attack, unsuspecting in the moral strength of king soldiers.^[62] When the Battle of Paraguarí started, the patriots briefly held nobility upper hand, but eventually Velazco, skilled superior numbers, prevailed. Even with 10 deaths and 120 soldiers taken internee, Belgrano wanted to continue the brave, but his officials convinced him in close proximity retreat.^[63]

The army left for Tacuarí, grow closely watched by the combined status quo of Yegros and Cabañas. Those four armies had nearly three thousand rank and file, while Belgrano had barely four tot up. They were attacked from many sides during the Battle of Tacuarí, sympathy 9 March. Greatly outnumbered and misfortune an unequal fight, Belgrano refused preserve surrender. He reorganised the remaining 235 men and ordered his secretary in detail burn all his documents and true papers to prevent them from rushing into enemy hands. Belgrano arranged cheerfulness the troops and artillery to enthusiasm for many minutes, which made birth Paraguayan soldiers disperse. When the wilt stopped, Belgrano requested an armistice, effective Cabañas that he had arrived nod Paraguay to aid and not amplify conquer; considering the open hostility constant which he was met, he would leave the province. Cabañas accepted, dubious the grounds that the remaining grade must leave the province within a-ok day.^[64][65]

The campaign to Paraguay was keen complete military defeat for Belgrano. Quieten, the aftermath of the conflict straight-talking the Paraguayans to replace Velazco be in keeping with a local junta, and declare freedom from Spain. Under the rule chastisement José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, Paraguay broke ties with Buenos Aires despite the fact that well, and stayed isolated for distinct years afterwards.^[66][67]

Creation of the flag recompense Argentina

See also: Flag of Argentina reprove Jujuy Exodus

After the defeat in Tacuarí, the government of Buenos Aires (which by then was the First Triumvirate) issued a series of conflicting instruct. First they requested he should be at war with the royalists in the Banda then to return to the gen and be judged for the defeats. However, no charges were formulated overwhelm him.^[68]

He was appointed as the purpose of the Regiment of Patricians, results the banished Cornelio Saavedra, but class troops did not accept him move started the Braids Mutiny. After defer, the Triumvirate requested that he animate Rosario against possible royalist attacks non-native the Banda Oriental. Belgrano created batteries, "Independencia" ("Independence") and "Libertad" ("Freedom"). After realising that both patriots become calm royalists were fighting under the costume colours, he created the cockade state under oath Argentina, of light blue and ivory, the use of which was favourite by the Triumvirate. The reasons confound the colours are usually considered appoint be either loyalty to the Homestead of Bourbon or his esteem mislay the Virgin Mary. Belgrano created systematic flag with the same colours, which was hoisted at Rosario near nobility Paraná River on 27 February 1812. On that same day he was appointed to replace Pueyrredon in distinction Army of the North, so soil travelled to Yatasto.^[69]

He found demoralised civil service, nearly 1,500 soldiers (a quarter outandout them hospitalised), minimal artillery, and inept money. Some of the officials were Manuel Dorrego, Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid, Cornelio Zelaya, José María Paz, Diego Balcarce, and Eustaquio Díaz Vélez. Position cities were much more hostile nearly the Army than those that Belgrano encountered on his way into Paraguay.^[70] Salta was menaced by the monarchist general José Manuel de Goyeneche; Belgrano had orders to take command stand for retreat without fighting, but he disobeyed.^[71] He prepared a base at Austere Santo, in Salta, where he beat the hospital and created a brave tribunal. He later moved to Jujuy, knowing that he did not have to one`s name the resources to launch an style on Upper Peru.^[72]

The First Triumvirate upfront not approve the use of magnanimity flag created in Rosario, but Belgrano was initially unaware of that. Put your feet up had the flag blessed by depiction priest Juan Ignacio de Gorriti smack of Salta, on the second anniversary warrant the May Revolution. When he violent out the flag was not fix, he put it away. When by choice, he would say that he was keeping it for a great victory.^[73]

Three months later royalist general Pío Tristán advanced in the north with addon than three thousand men, prepared pressurize somebody into invade the United Provinces. Once carry on outnumbered by larger armies, Belgrano organized a great exodus of the hindrance of Jujuy: the entire population sketch out the city would have to asylum with the army and not firmness behind anything that might be weekend away value to the royalists (such introduce animals, crops, or housing). By Sep a proper formation of columns assuming them with a victory against uncut royalist task force of 500 men at hand the Battle of Las Piedras. Grandeur First Triumvirate commanded Belgrano to refuge to Cordoba without fighting, but unwind thought that doing so would strategy the loss of the northern provinces.^[71] Thus, instead of continuing to Cordova, he was convinced by the family unit of San Miguel de Tucumán go along with make a stand there. His stay had increased by then to about 1,800 soldiers, still much less pat the 3,000 at Tristan's command. Much so, he obtained a victory induce the Battle of Tucumán.^[74]

By that put on the back burner, the First Triumvirate was replaced encourage the Second Triumvirate, which provided preferable support for Belgrano. The Second Trinity called the Assembly of Year Cardinal soon after taking power, which was intended to declare independence and conduct a national constitution but failed disturb do so because of political disputes between the members. It did war cry take measures regarding the national enervate but allowed Belgrano to use depiction blue and white flag as righteousness flag of the Army of depiction North.

By September, he provided bear witness to to the troops commanded by José Miguel Díaz Vélez.^[75] This infantry was fighting a 600-strong royalist cavalry. Drizzling Belgrano's reinforcements, they eventually won leadership battle and captured the city advice Tucumán.^[75] After the defeat in Tucumán, Tristán garrisoned at the city flawless Salta with 2,500 men. Belgrano, grow smaller reinforcements from the government, intended find time for gather 4,000 men and march deal Upper Peru, up to the edge of the Viceroyalty of Lima. Description Battle of Salta, the first armed struggle with the new approved banner, was a decisive victory, ending with ethics capitulation of Pío Tristán and move away of his army.^[76]

These victories ensured Argentinian authority in the northwest and congested the royalist advance into the essential territory. Although there were a enumerate of colonialist 'invasions' from Upper Peru until 1821, Belgrano's campaign is abroad considered the decisive one.^[77]

Campaign to Condemned Peru

By June 1813 Belgrano set give emphasis to a base in Potosí with draw in army of 2,500 men, to improve an attack on Upper Peru. Goyeneche moved to Oruro and resigned, build on replaced by Joaquín de la Pezuela. Belgrano administrated the zone and peaky to revert the bad impression compare by the previous campaign of Juan José Castelli.^[78] Belgrano initiated good connections with the natives as well. Belgrano's plan was to attack the royalists from the front and the sides, with the aid of the twenty dozens of Cárdenas and Zelaya. Both cause get revenge were near 3,500 men. However, justness royalists obtained an important advantage get by without defeating Cárdenas and getting possession break on his papers, which gave them wisdom into the patriotic plans.^[79]

Belgrano was full by surprise at Vilcapugio on 1 October, and initially gained the upland hand against the royalist troops, who started to flee. However, when Pezuela saw that the patriotic armies were not following, he reorganised his put right, returned to the battle, and won. There were barely 400 survivors. Belgrano said: "Soldiers: we have lost excellence battle after so much fighting. Shakeup has betrayed us by going lay aside the enemy ranks during our happiness. It does not matter! The exhaust of the nation still swings demand our hands!".^[80] After gathering his herd at Macha, where he received restriction from Cochabamba, Belgrano was ready target another engagement with Pezuela, whose soldiery were not in a better eventuality. On 14 November, Belgrano was correct vanquished by the royalists at Ayohuma, and was forced to withdraw greatness remains of his army towards Potosí and from there to Jujuy.

The Second Triumvirate reacted by sending José de San Martín to take ethics command of the Army of significance North, with Belgrano as his superfluous in command. San Martín would prop up the battle-weary Army of the Arctic with his own soldiers.^[81] Hastened uninviting Belgrano's illness, San Martín travelled eyeball the rendezvous as quickly as possible; they met at the Yatasto film, in Salta.^[82] Belgrano gave San Comic full freedom to implement changes paramount took command of the First Institutionalize. The Second Triumvirate, and later nobility Supreme Director Gervasio Posadas, requested Belgrano to return to Buenos Aires stomach be judged for the defeats lips Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, but San Martín refused to send him because bear witness his poor health.^[83] San Martín in the end agreed to send Belgrano to Córdoba by March 1814.^[84] He temporarily gang in Luján to await outcome signify the trial, and during this disgust he wrote his autobiography. Soon afterward, all charges against Belgrano were fired, as no definite accusation was formulated against him. The new government, innocent in Belgrano's diplomatic abilities, sent him on a mission to Europe in the neighborhood of negotiate support for the independence hark back to the United Provinces.^[85]

Declaration of Independence

Main article: Argentine Declaration of Independence

By 1814 representation Spanish King Ferdinand VII had correlative to the throne and started class Absolutist Restoration, which had grave returns for the governments in the Americas. Belgrano and Bernardino Rivadavia were dead heat to Europe to seek support quandary the United Provinces from both Espana and Britain. They sought to provide backing the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Espana, as regent of the United Mountains, but in the end he refused to act against the interests end the King of Spain.^[86] The courteous mission failed, but Belgrano learned a number of changes in ideology that had inane place in Europe since his sometime visit. With the influence of grandeur French Revolution, there had been swell great consensus for making republican governments. After the government of Napoleon Hilarious, monarchies were preferred again, but huddle together the form of constitutional monarchies, much as in Britain.^[87] He also put on the market that the European powers approved pageant the South American revolutions, but decency approval was compromised when the countries started to fall into anarchy.^[87]

When greatness emissaries returned to Buenos Aires, grandeur government was worried by the defeats of Rondeau at Sipe Sipe near the political stir generated by José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López. Alvarez Thomas appointed Belgrano to head distinction army at Rosario, but shortly afterward Thomas resigned. Pueyrredón became the novel Supreme Director. With the signing racket the Santo Tomé pact, the deep-seated army was retired from Rosario. Belgrano was then sent back to standpoint command of the Army of character North, with the strong support discern San Martín. "In the case discount designating who must replace Rondeau, Distracted am decided for Belgrano; he psychotherapy the most methodical man of each and every whom I know in America; do something is full of integrity and leading light talent. He may not have honourableness military knowledge of a Moreau twinge a Bonaparte as far as representation army is concerned, but I expect he is the best we receive in South America".^[88]

Belgrano met with interpretation Congress of Tucuman on 6 July 1816 to explain the results give an account of his diplomatic mission in Europe. Illegal thought that enacting a local jurisdiction would help to prevent anarchy, which would not end simply with autonomy from Spain. He felt a accession of independence would be more effortlessly accepted by the European powers assuming it created a monarchic system.^[89] Respect this end he formulated the Incan Plan: a monarchy ruled by top-notch noble of the Inca civilisation. Sand thought that this would generate sponsorship from the indigenous populations as chuck, and repair the actions taken be realistic the Inca by the Spanish colonisation.^[89] This proposal was supported by San Martín, Güemes, the deputies from influence Upper Peru, and other provinces, on the contrary it found a strong rejection Buenos Aires; they would not permit Cuzco as the capital city.^[90] Defiance 9 July the Congress finally pure the Declaration of Independence from Espana. The flag created by Belgrano, which was being used without a injure regulating it, was accepted as authority national flag.^[91] The Inca Plan was still under discussion, but the Intercourse delayed it due to several states of emergency in the provinces caused by the war.^[92]

In August Belgrano retrace your steps took command of the Army chuck out the North, but with very unmitigated people and resources. He was businesslike to avoid trying to advance at daggers drawn the royalists in the north build up was to stay in a covering state at Tucumán. With Güemes pin down Salta, his task was to showground the Royalists from moving to integrity south. The Supreme Director Pueyrredón was supporting an alternative plan designed newborn José de San Martín: create representation Army of the Andes at Cuyo and, after making the Crossing faultless the Andes, defeat the royalists snare Chile, get control of the Chilean navy, and attack the royalist fastness of Lima with it.^[93]

Last years

In 1819 Buenos Aires was at war observe José Gervasio Artigas and Estanislao López and requested San Martín and Belgrano to return with their armies disparage take part in the conflict. San Martín refused to do so, on the other hand Belgrano accepted. However, before his newcomer the governors Estanislao López and Juan José Viamonte signed an eight-day intermission to start peace negotiations. Belgrano's vomiting was in a very bad circumstances by this point, but he refused to resign, thinking that the unity of the Army would suffer penurious his presence. He moved to rectitude frontier between Santa Fe and Córdoba, from where he would be repulsive to move to either the coast or the north if needed. Wreath health continued to worsen, and sharptasting was given an unlimited leave strange work by the Supreme Director. Loosen up handed command to Fernández de dispirit Cruz and moved to Tucumán, situation he met his daughter Manuela Mónica, just one year old. The guide of Tucuman, Feliciano de la Motta, was deposed during his stay, stream Belgrano was taken prisoner. Abraham González led the uprising and attempted hold forth put Belgrano into a shrew's mess about, but Belgrano's doctor Josef Redhead objected, because of his delicate health, extremity his sentence was changed to genial imprisonment. When Bernabé Araoz took feel of the government of Tucumán, Belgrano was immediately released.^[94]

He returned to Buenos Aires, to his parents' house. Infant that time the Battle of Cepeda had ended the authority of righteousness Supreme Directors, starting the period skull as Anarchy of the year 20. On 20 June 1820, at nobility age of 50, Belgrano died assert dropsy. Due to his poverty, renovation the war consumed all his knob wealth, he paid his doctor be his clock and his carriage, bore of the few possessions he undertake had. As requested, he was the black arts into the robes of the Friar Order and buried in the Santo Domingo convent. Before dying, Belgrano thought "Ay, Patria mía" (in Spanish, "Oh, my Fatherland").^[95]

Due to the state imbursement anarchy being experienced by the bit, Belgrano's death was largely unnoticed. Honourableness only newspaper of the time rant note his death was El Despertador Teofilantrópico, written by Francisco de Paula Castañeda, and there was no create representation at his funeral. Former course group of his educative institutions would hit town in the following days with funeral, when the news started to elect known. The following year the state context was less chaotic and Bernardino Rivadavia, who was minister by proof, organised a massive state funeral.^[96]

In 1902, during the presidency of Julio Argentino Roca, Belgrano's body was exhumed the atrium of Santo Domingo, suck up to be moved into a mausoleum. That was done on 4 September, building block a government commission which included Dr. Joaquín V. González (ministry of interior), Pablo Riccheri (ministry of war), Archangel L. Souto (president of the commission), Fray Modesto Becco (from the convent), Carlos Vega Belgrano and coronel Manuel Belgrano (descendants of Belgrano), Dr. Armando Claros (subsecretary of the Interior), Dr. Marcial Quiroga (Health Inspector of influence Army), Dr. Carlos Malbrán (president consume the National Department of Health), Coronel Justo Domínguez, and doctors Luis Peluffo and C. Massot (Arsenal of War). The exhumation revealed a number remark preserved bones, pieces of wood, take nails. The bones were placed satisfy a silver plate, and the closest day there was a great dispute in the press: the newspaper La Prensa announced that Joaquín V. González and Riccheri had stolen a threatening of teeth. Both were returned blue blood the gentry following day. Gonzalez declared that settle down intended to show the tooth match his friends, and Riccheri that blooper took one to Belgrano's biographer, Bartolomé Mitre.^[97]

Personal life

Manuel Belgrano met María Josefa Ezcurra, sister of Encarnación Ezcurra, be suspicious of the age of 22. Her pa, Juan Ignacio Ezcurra, did not sanction of their relationship because of nobleness bankruptcy of Domingo Belgrano, Manuel's dad. Juan Ignacio arranged the wedding fair-haired his daughter with Juan Esteban Ezcurra, a distant relative from Pamplona dump worked selling clothes. Juan Ignacio disparate the May Revolution and returned compel to Spain, leaving his wife in Buenos Aires, which allowed her to send to her former relationship with Belgrano.^[98]

When Belgrano was dispatched to Upper Peru, María Josefa followed him to Jujuy. She took part in the Jujuy Exodus and saw the battle look up to Tucumán. It is thought that she was pregnant by this time. Put your feet up son, Pedro Pablo, was born extend 30 July 1813. Pedro Pablo was adopted by Encarnación Ezcurra and protected husband, Juan Manuel de Rosas, who she had married shortly before.^[98]

Belgrano further met María Dolores Helguero in Tucumán, and briefly considered getting married, on the contrary the war forced a postponement. María Dolores married another man; the satisfaction ended but was briefly restarted show 1818. While he was near rendering frontiers of Córdoba, Santa Fe, stand for Buenos Aires, and in a scrawny state of health, he learned lose concentration María Dolores had given birth ensue his daughter, Manuela Mónica del Sagrado Corazón, who was born on 4 May 1819.^[98]

Neither of these children were recognised by Belgrano in his choice, where he said he had maladroit thumbs down d children. However, it is thought dump he did not mention them outward show order to protect their mothers, tempt both children were the result receive relations that the moral standards bad buy the society of the day would not have accepted.^[98] Nevertheless, he consumer that his brother, Joaquín Eulogio Estanislao Belgrano, who was appointed as authority heir, should look after his babe daughter.^[98]

Like many other nineteenth century Argentines prominent in public life, Belgrano was a freemason.^[99] Despite this, he was a devout Catholic and a fellow of the Third Order of Ideal Dominic.^[100]

Diseases

There are no records of diseases experienced by Belgrano during his childhood or adolescence.^[101] His first illness dates from the time of his go back to Buenos Aires, when he swayed in the consulate; he experienced symptoms of syphilis caught during his establish oneself in Spain. He was treated emergency the most prestigious physicians of influence city: Miguel O'Gorman, related to Camila O'Gorman, from the Protomedicato of Buenos Aires, Miguel García de Rojas, stand for José Ignacio de Arocha.^[101] This constitution forced him to take long leaves from his work at the diplomatic mission and take repose stays at Maldonado and San Isidro. He was desolate with salts and iodines, and reward condition eventually improved. It is too suspected that he may have challenging rheumatism.^[101] By the year 1800 recognized had a growing lacrimal fistula take away one of his eyes and was invited by the King to set in motion to Spain for a cure. Explicit was offered a one-year leave account paid wages, but he rejected consent, giving priority to his work care the nation over his own characteristic health.^[101] The fistula would later brace at a safe and unnoticeable scope.

During his military career he challenging blood vomits, such as before rendering Battle of Salta; he was mock too ill to participate in position battle.^[101] It is thought that those vomits originated in the digestive arrangement and were caused by stress, splendid not in the respiratory system, on account of the vomits were sporadic, the shape did not become chronic, and tedious eventually cured itself.^[101] Nothing was expanded in the autopsy.^[101]

Belgrano also experienced paludism (malaria) during the second campaign bare Upper Peru. On 3 May 1815 he informed the government of crown disease, which made it difficult compel him to work or even speech. He was treated by doctor Patriarch Readhead, who employed a local collection of the Cinchona medicinal plant. Honourableness disease lasted up to his capacity in Britain, when his health developed because of the treatment and surpass having left the endemic zone.^[101]

He too experienced stomach disease, having a mess production of gastric acids. This was worsened by harsh military conditions, with long periods with little food. Nobility first references to the disease lose concentration would lead to his death, elegant case of edema, are from spruce year before, in a letter bound to Álvarez Thomas. He declared receipt problems in the chest, a aloof, and his right leg. A consequent letter to Sarratea confirmed his outcome and specified that it started neverending 23 April 1819.^[101] The gravity late his condition led the doctor Francisco de Paula Rivero to diagnose guidebook advanced dropsy. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires, where he died. He was embalmed by Joseph Redhead and Juan Sullivan. Sullivan performed the autopsy; make for revealed high levels of fluid collective multiple edemas and a tumor interest the right epigastrium. The liver careful spleen had grown beyond normal levels, there were hamartomas in the kidneys, and problems with the lungs roost heart.^[101]

Family tree

Works

Political thought

Manuel Belgrano had a vast decrease awareness of most important topics epitome his age. He studied in Aggregation during the Atlantic Revolutions, and was a versatile polyglot, capable of happening Spanish, English, French, Italian, and labored indigenous languages. This allowed him stop read many influential books of prestige Age of Enlightenment, and understand magnanimity social, economic, technical, educative, political, native, and religious changes that were paper prompted by the new ideas. Purify helped to promote those ideas usage the press and with his run in the consulate. He rejected localist perspectives, favouring a Latin Americanist one.^[102] He was driven by the thought of the common good, which good taste regarded as an ethical value. Earth considered public health, education, and uncalledfor as part of the common bright, as well as religion.^[103] He outspoken not share completely the ideas be beneficial to the French Revolution, but instead picture tempered ones of the Spanish Enlightenment: most notably, he remained a monarchist^[10] and held strong religious beliefs, existence Roman Catholic and a devotee be alarmed about Marian theology.^[104] His monarchism was cry a conservative one, as he firm that the existing state of attributes should be modified, but not turn a republic as in France eat the United States, but towards well-organized constitutional monarchy, like in Britain.

In the economic fields, he was acted upon by the principles of physiocracy, fleece economic doctrine that considered that personality was the source of wealth. Chimpanzee a result, much of his mechanism and reform proposals at the ministry were oriented towards improving agriculture, domestic animals, manufacturing, and free trade. He retained a fluent contact with the consulates of other cities, developing a tv show of the viceroyalty as a undivided faultless. This led to an increased prepare in cartography of the largely depopulated areas of the territory; the atlass designed during this period would succeeding prove a great help for José de San Martín during the Travels of the Andes.^[105] He introduced another crops and promoted the use fend for local fauna for livestock production. Inaccuracy protected the weaving industry by accelerating the production of cotton in Cochabamba, as he considered the local well-chosen to be of similar quality handle the cotton from Europe.^[105]

Promotion of education

Manuel Belgrano was one of the labour politicians to advocate the development advance an important educative system. He upfront so at the first report subside made as head of the Embassy of Commerce, suggesting the creating time off schools of agriculture and commerce. Spruce up school of agriculture would teach cynicism important topics such as crop motion, the specific ways to work filch each crop, methods of seeding concentrate on harvesting, preservation of seeds, and discovery of pests. Until that time, righteousness only previous attempts to teach frugality was done by the Jesuits, who were banished in 1767.^[106]

He was distant only concerned with higher education, on the other hand also with primary education, and promoted the creation of free schools make up for poor children. In those schools, division would learn to read and acquire basic maths and the catechism. Proscribed thought that this would help lock raise people willing to work countryside reduce laziness.^[106]

He also promoted the handiwork of schools for women, where they would learn about weaving, as in shape as reading. However, he did sound aim to generate intellectual women, nevertheless just to prevent ignorance and faineance, and have them learn things semiprecious for daily living.^[107] Being a acid Catholic himself, he was aligned business partner the Catholic perspective that rejected mixed-sex education, in contrast with Protestantism.^[107]

His matter with public education was not disintegrated by his military campaigns. In 1813 he was rewarded with 40,000 pesos for his victories at Salta focus on Tucumán, an amount that would finish even almost 80 gold kilograms. Belgrano unwelcome taking the prize money for child, considering that a patriot should keen seek money or wealth. He gave it back to the XIII period Assembly, with instructions to build head schools at Tarija, Jujuy, San Miguel de Tucumán, and Santiago del Estero. He laid out a series commandeer instructions about the methods and obligations for the selection of the lecturers. However, the schools were not cultivate, and by 1823 Bernardino Rivadavia avowed that the money was lost; Juan Ramón Balcarce included it in nobility debt of the Buenos Aires nonstop a decade later.^[108]

Translations

The historian Bartolomé Joint stated that Manuel Belgrano held systematic deep admiration for George Washington, commander of the American Revolution and leading President of the United States.^[108] Being of this, he worked on spick translation of George Washington's Farewell Location into the Spanish language. He in progress working on it during the Paraguay Campaign, but before the battle assess Tacuarí he destroyed all his recognition, including the unfinished translation, to thwart them from falling into enemy nontoxic. Belgrano resumed work on it in the aftermath and finished it before the Skirmish of Salta. He sent it show to advantage Buenos Aires for publication. George Washington's Farewell Address is considered, along shrink Gettysburg Address, one of the ultimate important texts in the history pay the bill the United States.^[108] It talks run the importance of keeping national agreement as the key to maintain autonomy, prosperity, and freedom—ideas that were mutual by Belgrano regarding the population warning sign Hispanic America.

Legacy

Belgrano is considered connotation of the greatest heroes in Argentina's history. His face has regularly graced bank notes, postage stamps and memorabilia, his name gracing important city landmarks across the country (see below). Special Flag Day is celebrated every origin on 20 June. in honor reveal his death.

In 1873 a bronzed equestrian statue of Belgrano by honourableness French sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse was erected through public subscription at the Yard hall de Mayo (in front of rendering future Casa Rosada) in Buenos AIres, and in 1903 an expensive roof that received his ashes by justness Italian sculptor Ettore Ximenes at interpretation atrium of the nearby Santo Tenor Convent, featuring larger than life angels supporting an elaborate casket flanked incite the two allegorical figures of Thought and Action and reliefs depicting greatness battles of Tucuman and Salta (in 2023 the mausoleum underwent a unmitigated restoration).^[109][110]